History of Mathematics Essay Example for Free

History of Mathematics EssayIf D is between A and B, and so AD + DB = AB (Segment Addition Postulate). And segment AB has exactly one midpoint which is D (Midpoint Postulate). The midsegment of a trigon is a segment that connects the midpoints of twain sides of a triangle. Midsegment Theorem states that the segment that joins the midpoints of deuce sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and has a length equal to half the length of the third side. In the figure show to a higher place (and below), DE will always be equal to half of BC. Given ? ABC with point D the midpoint of AB and point E the midpoint of AC and point F is the midpoint of BC, the following can be concludedSince the tangent of circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the tangency point, both radii of the two orthogonal circles A and B drawn to the point of intersection and the cable television service segment connecting the centres form a right triangle. If and are the equations of the two ci rcles A and B, then by Pythagorean theorem, is the condition of the orthogonality of the circles. A Saccheri quadrilateral is a quadrilateral that has one set of opposite word sides called the legs that are congruent, the opposite set of opposite sides called the bases that are disjointly parallel, and, at one of the bases, both angles are right angles.It is named after Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri, an Italian Jesuit priest and mathematician, who attempted to prove Euclids Fifth Postulate from the other axioms by the use of a reductio ad absurdum argument by as rack uping the negation of the Fifth Postulate. In hyperbolic geometry, since the angle sum of a triangle is strictly less than radians, then the angle sum of a quadrilateral in hyperbolic geometry is strictly less than radians. Thus, in any Saccheri quadrilateral, the angles that are not right angles must be acute.Some examples of Saccheri quadrilaterals in various models are shown below. In each example, the Saccheri quadri lateral is labelled as ABCD, and the common perpendicular line to the bases is drawn in blue. For hundreds of years mathematicians tried without success to prove the postulate as a theorem, that is, to deduce it from Euclids other four postulates. It was not until the get going century or two that four mathematicians, Bolyai, Gauss, Lobachevsky, and Riemann, working independently, discovered that Euclids parallel postulate could not be proven from his other postulates.Their discovery paved the way for the development of other kinds of geometry, called non-Euclidean geometries. Non-Euclidean geometries differ from Euclidean geometry only in their rejection of the parallel postulate but this single alteration at the axiomatic pes of the geometry has profound effects in its logical consequences. The Lobachevsky geometry is therefore consists of these statements ? There are lines that are parallel which are everywhere equidistant. ? In any triangle the sum of the tether angles is tw o right angles which is 180 degrees.? Straight lines parallel to the same line are parallel to each other. ? There exist geometric figures kindred with same shape but of different size to other geometric figures. ? Given common chord points, there is a circle that passes through all three. ? If three angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then the fourth angle is a right angle. ? There is no triangle in which all three angles are as small as we please. ? There exist squares or equilateral quadrilaterals with four right angles.

TQM in Academic Environment Essay Example for Free

TQM in Academic Environment EssayAbstractTotal Quality Management was originally a supposition coined in the late 1800s and early 1900s. This concept sought continuous cleansement in performance, laying a rotary of emphasis on the customers. A lot of organizations and military institutes started implementing the principles and integrating them within their entirety. Very soon, people started debating on the pictureive use and implementation of TQM within faculty member circles.Irrespective of rampart by somewhat circles, certain academic sectors integrated TQM and were surprisingly successful. Students, specializing in their respective fields were the focus of attention. It was decided that transformation will non take place through movements emphasizing greater specialization, grades, and standards of performance accountability or through training students to fit into existing academic environments. Rather, a stir that would produce improvement non entirely the fund amental changes with which we manage and design our reproductional placements but also how we design them, keeping in view the needs of our clients/constituents.The paper focuses and throws start out on the nature of total quality management. How it found way into the academic circles and its coherence as far as inculcating leaders in the society is concerned. It delves into the nature of change asked for and essential rethinking that follows post realization that TQM caters to the needs of the society and organizations at large.This involves budging out of the rules established, encouraging complex mental models, thinking out of the box, working on processes that improve grades rather than the grades themselves, eliminating prejudices with respective to normal and special cases, improving interaction between the departments, working towards a sh ared vision, increased commitment on the part of efficiency and teachers, everywherecoming resistance to change and being adaptive.TQ M in Academic EnvironmentTQM or Total Quality Management marks certain philosophies and universally acknowledged notions to win organizational effectiveness. This is in essence an attempt to go beyond customer satisfaction and to ensure good will throughout the industry. Japanese firms guard held their truth and superiority over other firms for the past two decades, thanks to their successful implementation of total quality management. Today, TQM is considered as a key tool in ensuring that efficiency of the organization is sustained. It has been implemented, across the board in various corporate organizations and has produced appetited results.They are customer driven, keep in perspective all the punt holders involved, inter-departmental communication is an important consideration, cross functional teams are operative, jobs are empowered and performance appraisal and feedback is regularly conducted. Thus, it was essentially through business organizations and militia that TQM e ntered the academic arena. In this context, we mould our definition of TQM as a means of achieving continuous unimpeded success, making use of certain tools and principles and producing effective leaders in the process.TQM has snip and again proven to be an effective strategy for sustaining and improvising growth and divulgement. Unfortunately, it is yet to bear its fruits in education, in particular primary and secondary education. The state of education in most nations around the globe has by far marked an average only.There is a omit of purpose, a focus, and most educational institutions in the world are not customer driven a myriad of departments exist with no focus on cross-departmental interaction conventional and old forms of transport education continue being practiced and people outside the academic circles are given little or no regard the notions are laid and facts dont count excellence is rarely sought and no benchmarks are made. Keeping expectations from such inst itutes is hogwash. Most surprisingly the belief that these quality programs are expensive is false. The primary, secondary and higher sectors of our academic education will continue struggling unless a proper plan is chalked out to combat all the short-circuit comings, these sectors face.The aim of an educational brass and its mission must be coherent with each other. The procedures, policies and tools applied in a department or a character should conform to the mission the academic institute caters to. Standards are set and a common understanding of the system at hand should prevail. Managers follow the aims targeted to devise the system proceedings and ensure that maximum quality is achieved. TQM in essence follows Demings 12 principles that were carved keeping the customers in perspective. On an academic scale, they are treated analogously.We begin by focusing on the major areas that TQM aims to improvise, what factors contribute its successful implementation and what goals a re intended to achieve through it. The rules that govern our teachers, administration, students and hurt systems bear been long standing and limit the ability to think and reason. Boundaries that are fenced around these rules are a comfortable resort not because they are easy to be taken care of but also because they stem for universally acknowledged practices.TQM, on the contrary advocates for the contrary. It aspires for change and thinking beyond the box. It does not believe in the conventional system of adjudging capabilities by marks but directs its focus towards the process that was put into practice to achieve the results. It is not possible to assess how the results changed, how the performance improved, unless the light is shed in the process that was used to produce the change.Continuous improvement should be sought for and educational systems should be continuously designed and redesigned unless goals stipulated are achieved. TQM, to this effect deliberates a framework that fosters continuous improvement. There is a marked difference between the traditional modes of achieving improvement and those set against TQM. Under TQM, education is dealt as a cafeteria which take care tos to satisfy hunger pangs of its customers. Improvement efforts and traditional processes are laid down on a menu card and offered to its customers (educators, institutes, colleges, universities, students, schools, administration) who seek to satiate their hunger pangs. As a result, those customers, who are able to satisfy their hunger walk out content and satisfied while the others stay in, unless their hunger demands are not dealt with.The rules established, thereof have to be pondered over again in all major genres. To this effect, quality principles have to be especially dealt with. Quality in this context means, that a shared vision guides the purpose of education its is acceptable by everyone it focuses on collaboration and interaction instead of competition it reali zes that every individual is unique and unalike in its own right and seeks to optimize the expectations met for each one of themgrades and other performance indicators are considered as the capability of the system or the process and not the difference between a good and an unsuccessful student it is devoid of prejudice and bias against students on the basis of their grades it seeks to nurture the needs of all them and support them in times of distress practices that berate people for instance ranking of staff, faculty, students are avoided and their morale are boosted and it emphasizes on self evaluation through collaborative evaluation.The rule rethinking under TQM also seeks to rethink roles allocated in an educational system. The most important of all being the managerial roles, who now have to deal individuals on an individual basis, keeping in perspective the context of the situation. This means having complete control of the environment and forces that work against the nurt uring and development of intrinsic motivation (Bryan, n.d.). This fosters an education system in which students actively take part in planning and evaluating their learn process. They are made to realize that they are responsible for their skill and this responsibility only increase as they grow and mature. This is implemented by effective management of the system.This involves complete understanding of the coherence and co-relation between the various departments of the system. The administration manages their system and the faculty manages their system. Students on the other hand as discussed take control of their lives. This nurtures and builds up an enjoyable environment of learning and development where individuals exercise authority over their roles and seek to improve it continuously. However, care must be taken that this reallocation of roles adheres to the quality standards.This involves using teams to improve effectiveness of the higher education environment and student learning quality in education emphasizes managing the processes used to produce the results then the results themselves it designs a curriculum such that students are able to adapt them in their lives and integrate the move they are exposed to accordingly a win-win situation is produced and there is no concept of win-lose quality in education is managed as a system by educational leaders who seek to understand their role and commit themselves to its strict adherence it provides freedom, and inculcates novelty across the board.However implementation of TQM in academic institutes has met with resistance by various circles. The most oft repeated argument against its favor is the belief that its a panacea of the 1900s and holds no value in straightaways time and era. M each argue that is a fad and like Management by Objectives, its going to be wiped away very soon. For this reason any many others that there are few organizations in the US who have completely embraced the concept of TQ M. When it was first introduced many chose to turn a blind warmness to it. For those who did successful implement TQM had to bypass a lot of obstacles.Most notably being the resistance to adapt, mould and change, adamant claims by naysayers who believed that TQM wont work, lack of trust and unwillingness to train and empower employees. To challenge the deeply embedded academia culture will and is a mountainous task. Limited marketing alternatives and rare cost cutting opportunities have added more fuel to the fire. Most of these institutes are run by political sectors whose demands vary frequently. (Total Quality, n.d.) While TQM aims at ridding the society where grades adjudicate capabilities, the society at large remains grade conscious.Other problems include the lack of coherence between the academic institutes managerial strata and its academic functions. The two run parallel to each other working towards their own goals. TQM approach, on the contrary requires that the groups work parallel to each other. Excess division over subjects pursued is another obstacle. Cultural beliefs and practices embedded within most of these schools gives way for resistance to change.Irrespective of these obstacles, TQM has found audience in the literature and the health sector. They have successfully implemented the principles associated with TQM. Not only has this improved the quality standard but reinforced customer trust in these sectors. Students are able to develop a complex model of problems and delve into analytical evaluation of their performance. Their comprehension skills have improved and they have built on their ability to adapt their learning to their life.This can be achieved by provided instructions that are clear and focused students should be taught different strategies to remember what they have learnt and apply them accordingly actions such as head nodding, maintaining consistent eye contact, smiling and being responsive can help develop a students inter est continuous desire and urge on the part of principal to seek improvement and meet quality standards instructional effectiveness is sought for such that no one has issues when it comes to ever-changing the mode of instruction directed and a staff that is involved in learning activities. (Kathleen, n.d.) Leaders in such schools would thus not only look out for ways to change but to manage and embed the change process throughout the institute.ReferencesKathleen, C. (n.d.). Applying Total Quality Management Principles To Secondary Education. Retrieved March Friday, 2008, from saddle///C/Documents%20and%20Settings/M.Sajjad/My%20Documents/originals/research%20work/s035.htmlBryan, R. Cole. (n.d.). TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AS A TOOLTO ENHANCE THE QUALITY OFHIGHER EDUCATION MANAGEMENT IN THEtwenty-first CENTURY. Retrieved March Friday, 2008, from file///C/Documents%20and%20Settings/M.Sajjad/My%20Documents/originals/research%20work/keynote1.htmTotal Quality Management in Higher Education Is It Working? Why Or Why. (n.d.). Green woods Publishing group.

Dividend Payment Impact on Common Stock Prices

Dividend Payment Impact on Common Stock PricesAbstractThe briny goal of this paper is to investigate the impact of dividend supportments on common shop prices using a panel of listed potents in Tunis Stock Exchange for a period from 2000 to 2008. Our empirical investigations reveal that Tunisian investors reward firms giveing hard currency dividends. This result is very interesting because it begs the question on the intention of Tunisian managers to pay dividend when investors put a stock price premium on payers as the catering theory suggests.1. IntroductionIn efficient and perfect market, Modigliani and Miller (1961) beat demonst come ind that there is no difference between the value of the firm paying dividends and that of nonpayer. Baker and Wurgler (2004a) argue that the investor demand for dividend-paying stocks depends on either psychological or institutional factors. They argue that managers tend to pay dividends when investors put higher prices on payers, and they omi t dividends when payers are at a discount. Baker and Wurgler (2004a) suggest that this catering air explains the difference documented between the average market-to-book ratios of payers and non-payers and that managers rationally initiate dividends to exploit an apparent market mispricing. They take place that when the rate of dividend initiation increases, the future stock returns of payers are lower than those of non-payers. This result supports the hypothesis that firms initiate dividends when the payers are overvalued. In this paper, we attempt to investigate whether cash dividend payments affect positively parcel prices.The remainder of the paper is create as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature on dividend payout policy. Section 3 provides a description of the data used in the empirical analysis and presents reasoning backward results for the determinants of stock prices. Section 4 concludes.2. Literature ReviewBaker and Wurgler (2004b) show that the disappearanc e of dividends can be explained by lower market valuations of payers during such periods. They find that the longing to pay increases when a proxy for the stock market dividend premium is positive and decreases when it is negative. These empirical results suggest that the distribution of dividends responds to patterns of market timing. Companies pay dividends in arrange to raise the stock prices of their shares above their fundamental values. However, we wonder why the demand for shares paying dividends changes over time? Baker et al. (2007) argue that this time-varying can be attributed to changes in income tax rank of share nominateers. Baker and Wurgler (2004a) note that the increase in the value of a company paying dividends reflects the risk assessment by investors. Indeed, dividend-paying firms are considered slight risky than non-payers ones since this dividend premium disappears in periods of expansion and reappears in recession periods. Thus, investors who prefer cash d ividend payments during gloomy period as an indicator of the firms safety and therefore are more allow foring to pay dearly to buy dividend-paying stocks.Ferris et al. (2006) conclude that the decline of the number of dividend-paying firms in UK can be explained by a shift in catering incentives. Li and Lie (2006) suggest that changes in corporate payout ratios of US firms depend on the market dividend premium. Ferris et al. (2008) find that investors place high value on dividend-paying firms.By contrast, Eije and Megginson (2008) investigate dividend policies in fifteen European countries over the period 1989-2003 and conclude that their findings do not support the catering hypothesis. Denis and Osobov (2008) find that reductions in the part of dividend-paying stocks occur in countries where the dividend premium is largely positive. Tsuji (2010) finds that Japanese corporate managers do not cater to investors in either their dividend initiation decisions or their continuation dec isions.3. data and MethodologyTo form our main Tunisian sample, we start with all listed firms appearing at any point between 2000 and 2008. We restrict the sample to exclude financial firms1. The final sample covers 24 publicly traded Tunisian firms. Data were collected from Tunis Stock Exchange and completed from firms web sites.3.1 Definition and measurement of variablesThe development of stock prices can be explained by variables specific to the firm such as cash dividend and profitability, by macroeconomic variables such as interest rates and inflation, and a variable which reflects the stock market performance.3.1.1 DividendsAccording to the fashion model of Gordon and Shapiro (1956), the current stock price equals the present value of its future dividends. Gordon and Shapiro assume that the dividend is a invariable fraction of the profits carried out by the company. The expected receipt of dividend income is an incentive for investing in a given stock, particularly if th e yield on the enthronization exceeds the return offered on other alternative investments like savings accounts. Investors may pay a premium for shares in issue. Tsoukalas and Sil (1999) find a strong correlation between the stock prices and dividends paid by U.K firms.3.1.2 ProfitabilityAn improvement in profitability leads to an increase in stock price because investors become more approving about future performance of the firm. Demand increases for the shares that have a high prospect for egression (blue chip shares). Prices of such shares rise much faster than those of companies whose growth prospects are bleak. Vuolteenaho (2002) finds that firm-level stock returns are mainly driven by cash-flow news. By contrast, Kothari et al. (2006) show that stock prices are unrelated to past earnings and depend negatively on concurrent earnings.In this paper, Profitability is defined as earnings before interests and tax reported to total assets.3.1.3 inflationThe impact of inflation o n the stock price is not obvious. If households expect higher prices, they can increase their consumption and therefore reduce their savings. This behavior will lower stock prices. By contrast, if households ingest to keep the value of their heritage, they will be more likely to invest in shares in order to hedge against a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services. Indeed, inflation erodes the purchasing power of money and other financial assets that have fixed values. Therefore, if households have a hedging purpose, inflation will have positive effects on share prices.Alagidede and Panagiotidid (2010) provide evidence of a positive long-run relationship between stock prices and inflation in five African countries (Tunisia, Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria) and they conclude that common stocks in these countries represent a hedge against rising consumer price.Geyser and Lowies (2001) examine the relationship between share prices and inflation within a sample of firms listed in Namibian and Johannesburg Stock Exchanges. Their findings reveal a strong positive correlation between inflation and stock prices of Namibian firms. In South Africa, companies belonging to the mining sector cannot be treatd as an inflation hedge since stock prices of these firms are negatively correlated with the developing of the Consumer Price Index, whereas stock prices of firms in other sectors (financial services, information technology and food and beverage) are slightly positively correlated with inflation.Bodie (1976) finds that in the U.S during the period from 1953 to 1971 common stocks failed to serve as hedges against either anticipated or unanticipated inflation.The inflation rate is defined as the percentage rate of change in consumer price index.3.1.4 have-to doe with rateThe impact of changes in interest rates on stock prices is mixed. If rates rise, bonds become less expensive which encourages shareholders to arbitrate for bonds by selling sha res that they hold and therefore stock prices fall. By contrast, a significant decrease of interest rate makes shares more profitable and persuades investors to buy back equity and pushing up prices. Cifter and Ozun (2008) find that stock prices in Turkey are negatively affected by the interest rate changes.represents the money market annual average rate for Tunisia.3.1.5 Stock market performanceA bull market is characterized by higher valorizations and a bear market is characterized by lower stock prices. In this paper, we used annual return rate of the index TUNINDEX to measure the performance of Tunisian stock market.3.2 Descriptive statistics give in 1 reports descriptive statistics for the dependant and instructive variables. We note the higher level of the money market annual average rate that can be explained by the important rising consumer price Tunisia. The cockeyed of the natural logarithm of dividend is negative suggesting that Tunisian firms pay annually on average l ess than 1 TND as cash dividend. stash away table-1 hereTable 2 reports the correlations matrix for explanatory variables. The coefficients of correlation of explanatory variables are generally low. Using a test of Farrar-Glauber (1967), we can accept the hypothesis of the absence of multicollinearity among our free lance variables.Insert table-2 here3.3 Estimation methodsThe study was conducted on panel data. Using panel data can enhance the quality and quantity of data. It allows us to pick up some effects that cannot be detected using time-series analysis. Panel data regression provides three estimators pooled OLS, fixed effects, and random effects models. A pooled estimator takes as the same across all cross-section units. The fixed effects model assumes as a group specific term. The random effects approach takes as a group specific disturbance.Testing the significance of the group effectsTo choose between these three approaches we compute a test of homogeneity. The hypothesis of homogeneity of constants across all cross-section units can be formulated as followsThis test of Fisher is computed as followsWhere Residues square sum of the individual effects model Residues square sum of the model Pooled. Number of firms Number of explanatory variables (constant not included)If calculated F is lower than tabulated F (p-value Hausmans test for fixed versus random effectsIf the effect is assumed to be individual, the Hausman specification test is carried out in order to decide whether the fixed or the random effects model should be used. The Hausman test compares the fixed and random effects estimates of coefficients.The tested hypothesis concerns the correlation of the individual effects and the explanatory variables.Under the null hypothesis, the individual effects are random and we then have to choose the estimator of GLS. Under the alternative hypothesis, the individual effects are correlated to the explanatory variables and we then have to choose the model to fixed effects.The test of Hausman compares the matrix of variance-covariance of two estimatorsThe statistic H is asymptotically distributed as with K degree of freedom, where K is the number of explanatory variables. If calculated H is lower than tabulated (p-value 3.4 FindingsTable 3 reports regression results. We provide Pooled OLS, fixed effects and random effects results. The Hausmans test confirms that the estimator fixed effects is the proper one.Insert table-3 hereCash dividends have a significantly positive impact on stock prices of Tunisian firms. This result indicates that Tunisian investors reward cash dividend-paying firms by adding a positive premium to their shares prices.The profitability has a positive impact on stock prices. Highly profitable firms have higher stock prices. If the firm releases new positive results, investors will be more optimistic about its prospects and expected future cash flows and therefore they will be willing to pay dearly to buy its sec urities.The variable MARKET that measures the performance of Tunis stock exchange presents the expected sign. This result indicates that stock prices follow the overall trend of the market.Inflation affects negatively and significantly stock prices suggesting that common stocks of Tunisian firms cannot provide a hedge against inflation. The plausible explication for this result is that an increase of the consumer price index reduces the marginal propensity to save. Our result confirms findings in Geske and Roll (1983).4. ConclusionThis paper investigates the impact of cash dividend payments on stock prices of listed non-financial Tunisian firms. Our empirical results reveal that Tunisian investors reward cash dividend-paying stocks. This finding begs the question on the existence of a catering behavior as suggested by Baker and Wurgler (2004a). Future academic studies with larger datasets should investigate whether Tunisian firms behave according to the prediction of the catering th eory by comparing the value of payers and non-payers firms.

Media in Jamaica Analysis

Media in Jamaica AnalysisThe Media in the Country of JamaicaCory MarshallJamaica is the fifth largest island country in the Caribbean and is home to 2.8 million citizens. It was once cognise as Santiago when it was under Spanish controller until 1655 when England began to rule the country and changed the name to Jamaica. Today, Jamaica is still under the rule of Great Britain with a representative k in a flashn as the G all overnor-General of Jamaica and a head of politics and Prime Minister. Throughout history, Jamaica has had strong influences on media across the globe and this research paper will look into the many areas in media which Jamaica has had a part in.The idea of broadcasting to the Jamaican people first came in the form of radio receiver receiver in 1939 when the Jamaican government retrieved ham radio equipment from John Grinan, a Jamaican amateur radio operator, at the beginning of World War II (Pressreference.com, retrieved 12/3/2014). Grinan followed the war close ly and persuade the Jamaican government to purchase his equipment and create a public broadcasting system. The first official Jamaican public radio broadcast began on November 17, 1939 and consisted of mavin broadcast per week coming from Grinans home. This would continue until the middle of 1940 when the target hired a staff and began to broadcast daily. The station became actually popular and as this happened it became very expensive to operate. Thats when the decision was made to license a private gild to take over the station.In 1950, Radio Jamaica was born and was a in camera owned subsidiary of Re-diffusion Group of London. (Watson, 2011) Beca manipulation it was owned by a London group, it was required to broadcast at least 10 hours per week of BBC surfeit. Therefore, the majority of the center of the station was British. This would continue for ten courses until the government owned Jamaican Broadcasting Corporation radio was created in 1959 and began broadcasting t hat same year. (Dunn, 2000) JBC wanted to process further develop in Jamaica and began so by using the motto, the listening component of nation-building. JBC did very headspring and received a lot of government funding. However, the station would only survive until 1997 when it was decided that a new organization, the Public Broadcasting Corporation of Jamaica would take over as the official public broadcasting radio station of Jamaica. The PBCJ began broadcasting in 2006 and can still be heard on Jamaican airwaves today.Like radio, television became an extremely popular medium in Jamaica. In 1962, Jamaica attained independence from England. One year later, the first television broadcasting station was formed. The station was trusted to the Jamaican Broadcasting Company who already had a strong presence in Jamaica with their radio station. The television station would be known as JBCTV. Like the radio sides listening component motto, JBCTV would use the motto the visual component in nation building. One big difference between JBCTV and JBC radio was the way it was funded. Even though the enhance participation, JBC, received government funding, JBCTV would be financed primarily through advertisement. This was due to the idea that JBCTV would be very expensive to run, therefore the government did not want to finance such a heavy expense.The satellite boom in the 1980s expanded the broadcasting pains. Prior to this point, JBCTV was the dominate television station in Jamaica. So when satellites expanded the broadcasting industry it created competition to JBCTV by allowing those who could afford it, access to foreign television stations as well. This was due to Jamaicas close propinquity to the United States which allowed satellites to pick up US signals. To compete with this, cable companies were born. (Gordon, 2008) In 1997, JBCTV would become TVJ. TVJ became a privately owned commercial station run by JBCs old rival, the Radio Jamaica Communications Group w here it still operates today as TVJ.Well in front radio and television was introduced to Jamaica, another form of media had been alive for over two centuries the theme. Way back in the year 1718, the first printing press arrived in Jamaica by printer Robert Baldwin, and soon began printing a newspaper, the hebdomadally Jamaica Courant. (Fraas, 2012) This newspaper is known as being the second regular newspaper in the Americas. It is so old that scholars have only located 10 issues of the theWeekly Jamaica Courantprinted before 1730. This newspaper would run until 1755 and contained information common to many English colonial newspapers. This information intromitd the prices of goods, slave auctions, shipping news, as well as advertisements (Tortello, 2003). Occasionally, local news was posted, such as when the hurricane hit Jamaica in 1722 and 400 people died. Only a few copies of the Courant have survived and are now found in Londons Public Records Office.In the 1830s Jamaican newspaper history would be made when the deCordova brothers launched The Daily Gleaner. The newspaper started out as a way for the deCordova brothers to publicize goods for sale. leash months after the first published Daily Gleaner, the papers name changed to The Gleaner A Weekly Family Newspaper devoted to Literature, Morality, the Arts and Sciences and Amusements.Today, The Gleaner is the largest newspaper on the island of Jamaica. The Gleaner employes close to vitamin D people in Jamaica, with offices in Kingston, Montego Bay, America, Canada and the United Kingdom (Tortello, 2003).Filmmakers have been coming to Jamaica since the early 1900s. However, Jamaicas own film scene is not really well known but it is growing. The first movie made in Jamaica by Jamaicans was the 1972 film titled The Harder They Come (Jamaicans.com, 2009). The film represented a breakout for the islands harmony scene of the 1960s and early 1970s. Jamaica has been a popular place for filmmakers to shoot due to the jungle environment. However, Jamaicas own film industry is very small. One of the virtually obvious reasons for this is more or less likely cost. Films are expensive to make. However, there is new hope that Jamaicas film industry will grow. The Film Commission of Jamaica was established in 1984. The commission works hard to bring filmmakers to the island, but there is also growing interest in developing Jamaicas own cinematic creations.Jamaica has latterly seen their film industry grow due to a film feast. The Jamaica International Reggae Film Festival is an event that takes place in Kingston, Jamaica and is held annually every February. The festival was created in 2008 by filmmaker Barbara Blake Hannah. Hannah is currently the Executive Director of the Jamaica Film Academy, Managing Director of Jamaica Media Productions Ltd, and the director of the Jamaica International Reggae Film Festival. Since the film festival was created, the film industry in Jamaica has grown tremendously. This, as well as a recent European film treaty which enables Jamaican film makers to ask for funding in Europe, has given much more opportunities for Jamaican film.Prior to 1999, the Jamaican telecommunications sector was dominated by Cable and radio Jamaica. This company is a British company that has been the major telecommunications provider to Jamaica since the mid nineteenth century. The company operated in the British Colonial government since as early as 1868. In the 1960s, during the first ten dollar bill of political independence in the region, the Jamaican government wanted to take control of all telecommunications resources in the country. To do this, the government took over the majority of rightfulness of Cable and Wireless Jamaica. They would gain 51 percent of shareholding in the company, therefore giving the government majority control. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, the technology and ability to control the company and all of telecommunications in Jamaica became very difficult. So in 1987 Cable and Wireless Jamaica was able to take control back and was no longer government operated. This has allowed the company to grow tremendously and has since become a monopoly in telecommunications and now controls the telecommunications industry in 15 Caribbean territories (Dunn, Gooden, retrieved 12/3/2014). Though they are the largest telecommunications company in Jamaica, they are not the only. The other two companies that specialize in telecommunications in Jamaica are Digicel and Oceanic Digital. Both companies were granted licenses in 2001 to operate agile services in a country whose telecommunications market was dominated by Cable and Wireless. Today, all three companies share the market in Jamaica with Cable and Wireless Communications being the leading operator in most of the Caribbean and Latin America.Internet is used in Jamaica, however, it is still behind other Caribbean nations in wrong of usage. As of 2010, internet was b eing used by 55% of all Jamaicans. One can only assume that internet usage today has increase in Jamaica. Internet statistics show that from 2006 to 2010 there was a 16% increase of Jamaicans using internet (InternetWorldStats.com, 2010). There was no statistics on internet use beyond 2010 but with this rate of increase, it is projected that about 70% of Jamaicans are online. That is a tremendous number in terms of Caribbean nations. A 2009 e-commerce report by Jamaicas Minister of Industry, Commerce, Science and Technology, Phillip Paulwell, emphasized the importance of Jamaica to continue to grow in the internet market and to be e-ready. the Minister informed that Jamaica has made tremendous bestride and was now behind the United States, Canada, Brazil and Chile in terms of our E-readiness for this region, and was looking forward to overtaking them as the first developing country to do so in the region. (InternetWorldStats.com, 2009).Paulwell discussed the importance of Jamaica t o move past telephone technology by saying, the mission is to move away from the focus on voice and sort of to try in greater earnest to ensure that we have the infrastructure for supporting a knowledge-based society. This mission is currently underway and has improved the internet in Jamaica. Over the last nine years, The Universal Service Fund has invested billions of dollars to provide internet access to Jamaicans. As of September of 2014, the fund has completed a primitive of 188 Internet community access points throughout the country with the final goal being 236 (Observer, 2014). This will allow internet to flow all throughout the integral country of Jamaica.The culture of Jamaica is one that is rich and seen worldwide. It is a combination of cultures from the first descendants to the island. The original Taino Settlers, and then the Spanish conquerors all made major contributions. However, the most dominant culture in Jamaica is the blacks and slaves who suffered the harsh conditions of forced labor. One of the most well known culture aspects of Jamaica is Rastafari. It is a religion that was made famous by medicinal drugian Bob Marley. Rastafari itself is a religious belief system that is based on teachings found in the Old Testament and the New Testament. Rasta cultural traditions include keeping their hair uncut and in dreadlocks, as well as eating unprocessed foods which are known as Ital. Though Rastafari is very well known worldwide, it is a very small culture on the island and is often frowned upon by christian Jamaicans.Jamaica is also home to a very strong music scene. Reggae music is extremely powerful in Jamaica and has revolutionized dance in Jamaica. Jamaica is also home to a popular theatre scene. Jamaicas first theatre was built in 1682. Other theatres opened up in the 1700s and 1800s and allowed professional touring to perform in the country. Todays most popular theatrical form in Jamaica is known as mime and began in the 1940s as a combination of English pantomime with Jamaican folklore (Banham, 2005).Sports are also very popular with Jamaican culture. By far the most dominant sport in the country is cricket. The Jamaica national cricket team has won ten Regional Four Day Competitions and seven WICB support Cups. What we call soccer is also a popular sport in Jamaica. The Jamaica national football team has won the Caribbean Cup five times and in advance(p) to the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Jamaica is also a leader in sprinting. The current world record holder for 100m and 200m, Usain Bolt and the former 100m world record holder, Asafa Powell, are two from Jamaica.Jamaica is home to several very popular festivals. In 1962, The Jamaica Independence Festival was created. It is a festival that retains the countrys freedom and is in place to showcase literary, fine, and performing artists, and to celebrate things Jamaican (Gleanor, retrieved 2014). The festival is a way to give Jamaicans a sense of what their cultur e is all about. One of the highlights of the festival is the Popular Song Competition. Every year since 1966, a competition is held at the festival to crown an artist the winner. The winner receives one million dollars and a new car. In addition to this competition, the festival now includes the Miss Jamaica Festival Queen Contest, a national Mento band competition, and a Gospel song competition.As this paper has shown, Jamaica is a small country with a big media presence. The country has a rich history in all of its media. Today, Jamaica is home to 14 television stations and 27 radio stations (Dunn, 2000). The newspaper industry is still strong after survived for nearly 300 years. Today, youll also find cellphones in almost every Jamaicans hand and the internet is still chronic to grow and reaches more and more Jamaicans everyday. The Jamaican culture is a fascinating one and having the opportunity to research the history in so many incompatible areas is one Ill continue to look i nto. Ill conclude this paper with the official motto of Jamaica Jamaica, Out of Many, One People.BibliographyJamaica. PressReference.com. (2010). Retrieved from http//www.pressreference.com/GuKu/Jamaica.html.Watson, Roxanne. (2011). Daggering and the regulation of questionable broadcast media content in Jamaica. Communication Law Policy . Vol. 16 Issue 3, p255-315. 61p.Dunn, Hopeton S. (2000). Jamaican media Ringing the changes 50 years and beyond. Buzz. Vol. 6 Issue 31, p92-96. 5p.Gordon, Nickesia S. Media and the Politics of farming The Case of Television Privatization and Media Globalization in Jamaica. Boca Raton, Florida Universal Publishers. (2008). PrintFraas, Mitch. (2012). The Calves Head and Early Printing in Jamaica. Retrieved from https//uniqueatpenn.wordpress.com/2012/06/14/the-calves-head-and-early-printing-in-jamaica/Tortello, Rebecca. (2003). Printing in Jamaica. Pieces of the Past. Retrieved from http//jamaicagleaner.com/pages/history/story0066.htmlJamaicans.com. (2009). Jamaica and Film. Retrieved from http//www.jamaicans.com/culture/articles_culture/jamaica-and-film.shtmlDunn, Hopeton S. Gooden, Winston S. Telecommunications in Jamaica. Retrieved fromhttp//www.vii.org/papers/jama.htmInternet World Stats. (2010). Jamaica. Retrieved from http//www.internetworldstats.com/car/jm.htm Internet World Stats. (2009). Broadband and Consumer E-Commerce in Jamaica. Retrieved from http//www.internetworldstats.com/car/jm.htmJIS. Govt invests billions to provide Jamaicans with Internet access. Jamaica Observer.22 Sep. 2014.Banham, Martin. Hill, Errol. Woodyard, George. The Cambridge Guide to African and Caribbean Theatre. Cambridgeshire, England. Cambridge University Press. (2005). PrintBibliographyJamaica Gleaner. (2003). The History of Jamaica Festival. Pieces of the Past. Retrieved from http//jamaica-gleaner.com/pages/history/story0031.html

Psychological Theories Of Crime

Psychological Theories Of CrimePsychology and CrimePsychology of crime tries to give an definition how some muckle deviate from the social norms and express up to commit crime. It is withal a tool commonly dod in the investigation process that helps investigators wonder suspects effectively.Definitions of CrimeA crime is gener tout ensembley considered as an act that is against what criminal constabulary says. Crimes that argon mala prohibita vary with time and place and are dependent proportional to cultural context and values yet crimes that are mala in se are universally forbidden. mala in se crimes include murder or theft.Consensus TheoriesThis see regards all crimes to be intolerable to all inn. Society as a whole agrees upon and formulates a written code which defines crimes and is a reflection of values, beliefs, and opinions of golf clubs mainstream culture. There is a consensus mingled with the majority in society as these agree on which deportments should b e criminalized or not. Sutherland and Cressey link crime with criminal law as agree to them criminal doings is a violation that goes against mainstream beliefs. They as well as guess that the legal system deals with crime uniformly thus dealing with all kinds of different community in the same way.Social harm the consensus view distinguishes between illegal behaviours that cause social harm and those that do not. Deviant behaviour is against social norms but does not cause social harm. Deviant acts although deemed shocking or immoral are not necessarily criminal. However the consensus view still condemns victimless crimes even though they kick in wilful participants, they argue that this behaviour could undermine the social fabric and that all members of society must be entertained even if they choose to invade in high-risk behaviours.On the other hand some other theorists of the Consensus View claim that deviance is in fact beneficial in society as it challenges old-fashio ned ideas and brings about the needed change in society.Conflict TheoriesThe Conflict Perspective believes that criminal law reflects and protects established economic, racial, gendered and political power. This perspective portrays society as a collection of different assemblages who are in constant conflict with each other as they are all the time attempt to achieve and maintain this power. Groups use the law in their favour to assert their political power. Therefore they consider criminal law as existing to protect those in power. According to this view the definition of crime is in the hands and monopolised in favour of those who construct power. Crime is shaped by the ruling clique instead of by societal consensus. Benign violent acts ensure tranquillity preventing the underclass from overthrowing their capitalist exploiters. Conflict theorists believe punishments are not given jolly and thus this theory holds that the system is shaped by the ruling class for the ruling cla ss. For instance lower class wad get harsher punishments for petty crimes than do white collar criminals. According to the conflict perspective, real crimes would include violations of human rights and inadequate childcare amongst others.Interactionist TheoriesAccording to the Interactionists, people act according to their interpretations of reality and fix meanings accordingly. They observe the way others react whether positively or negatively and then re-evaluate and interpret their own behaviour according to the meanings they have learned from others.Interactionists assert that people in power use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on others. To Interactionists crimes are outlawed behaviours because society has defined them that way. Criminal law is shaped by moral entrepreneurs who use their influence to shape the legal system the way they see it. Interactionists argue that crime has no meaning unless people react to it in a negative way.2. Theories of CrimeClassical TheoriesBasic elements of genuine theoriesIn society people have free will to choose criminal or lawful solutions to meet their needs and settle their problems.Criminal solutions whitethorn be more attr sprightly because they have a quicker and great payoff.Persons choice of crime may be controlled by fear of punishment.The more severe, swift and certain the punishment is the better it is able to control criminal behaviour.The classical perspective influenced judicial philosophy at the end of the 18th and 19th centuries, prisons started to appear as a form of punishment. Punishment by execution also began to be used for the most serious of offences.Let the punishment fit the crime is the key idea where punishment prevents persons from doing crime and from doing serious crime.Positivist Theories stark naked discoveries in biology, astronomy and chemistry influenced social researchers to use the same scientific regularity to be applied to explain human behaviour. Human behaviour is a function of forces beyond the persons control. Behaviour is influenced by forces some of which are social, political, historical and biological. A persons biological makeup and structure also influence behaviour.The scientific method is used to solve social problems including human behaviour. Factual first hand information and observations are used. The work of Charles Darwin on the evolution of man encouraged gain ground the development of science and that human activity could be verified by scientific principles.Physiognomists studied facial features of criminals to determine whether the shape of the nose, ears, eyes and the distance between them were associated with antisocial behaviour whilst Phrenologists studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the head and sought to determine whether these attributes were linked to criminal behaviour.Cesare Lambroso (1835-1909) studied physical characteristics of soldiers convicted and executed for criminal offences a nd believed that criminals are inherently born criminal as they inherit traits which subject them to ill-doing. These born criminals suffer from atavistic anomalies meaning that they are throwbacks to more primitive times with grand jaws, strong canine teeth, sloping shoulders and foreheads, full lips and flat feet.These criminal traits can be acquired or inherited in 2 waysIndirect heredity inherited from a degenerate family whose members suffered from ills such as insanity, syphilis and alcoholism.Direct heredity being related to a family of criminals.Radical CriminologyRadical or redness criminology explains crime within economic and social contexts expressing the connection among social conflict, crime and social control. Theories within radical criminology argue that conflict promotes crime by creating a social atmosphere in which law is a form of social control controlling dissatisfied members of society, whilst the affluent maintain their power. Therefore criminal behav iour is a function of conflict and a reaction to the unfair distribution of wealth and power in society.Social conflict has its theoretical basis in the works of Karl Marx as interpreted by Bonger, Dahrendorf and Vold. Conflict theorists suggest that crime in any society is caused by class conflict and laws are created by those in power to protect their rights and interests.Radical criminology views the capitalist system as a major cause of crime the poor commit crimes because of their frustration, anger and need. The fuddled engage in illegal acts because they are used to competition and to maintain their positions in society therefore the state serves the interests of the ruling capitalist class. Criminal law is an instrument of economic oppression re-enforcing the oppression of the subordinate classes.There are 2 main branches of radical criminology referred to as instrumental and structural theory. Instrumental theorists believe that the legal system supports the owners at the expense of the workers. Structural theorists on the other hand believe that the law controls the power of the capitalists.Labelling TheoriesLabelling theories are interested in the make of labelling on individuals and ask why some people committing some actions come to be defined as deviant, while others do not. Once a group or individuals having a certain common characteristic are labelled to be deviant the more likely they are to be arrested for, charged with, and convicted of a crabbed crime. The label attached may become so dominant that it is often referred to as the master status which is seen as more important than all the other aspects of the person. He or she becomes a hooligan or thief rather than a father, mother or friend.Each label carries with it prejudices and images and this may ace to others interpreting the behaviour of the labelled person in a particular way. For example, a person who volunteers to stay late at work is usually seen as worthy of praise, but, if a person has been labelled as a thief, people might be suspicious that they will steal something. For some people at one time a deviant label has been applied this can actually lead to more deviance. This happens when people start acting in the way they have been labelled.The Labelling possibility argues that no act is intrinsically criminal as crime is defined in the interest of the people in power therefore it is the designation of criminality by authorities which makes an act unlawful and a person who commits it a criminal. Everyone is a conformist in some ways and a deviant in other ways and therefore dividing people into criminal and non-criminal categories does not make any sense.1. Police hold stereotypes about typical criminals.2. They use these stereotypes to interpret the behaviour of suspected deviants3. The closer that a person comes to the stereotype held by the police the more likely they are to be arrested for, charged with, and convicted of the crime.Lemerts Theory of Secondary departureLemert suggests that deviance doesnt just happen with a single instance of behaviour. He argues that there is first an act which may be mischievous that deviates from the normatively expected behaviour and which results in a reaction from society. The reaction often involves admonition not to deviate again, and perhaps punishment. Other acts, and reactions, continue to occur. Lemert wisely suggests that some instances of deviance in this pattern are probably simply clumsy and unintended. Punishment and admonition for those acts may very well provoke a sense of being do by unjustly.After a series of such interdependent interactions, eventually the person begins to employ his deviant behaviour or a role based upon it as a means of defence, attack, or adjustment to the admonitions and prohibitions that behaviour provokes and this is what Lemert calls secondary deviance.3. Measurement of CrimeCrime is a part of society therefore it is important for it to be measu red. Through measuring crime we can see the amount of crime present and therefore test the effectiveness of preventative measures. Crime trends can be estimated and may be used as information for policy makers.Measurement of crime in USAIn the United States of America crime is in the main measured by two ways the National Crime Victimization Survey and the equivalent Crime Report. These two different measures are utilized to have a more accurate account of crime. The National Crime Victimization Survey began being used as it became apparent that not all crimes were penning to the police. A scientific survey would have to be conducted of the population in question to discover if they have been victims of crime and have not stateed this to the police. The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) are the major crime reports that are reported to the police. These are then given to the F.B.I and they publish these reports.Measurement of crime in BritainIn Britain the yearly British Crime Survey (B CS) and police records are both used to measure crime rates. Before 1982 only police records were used stock-still it became evident that this was not enough. The BCS is analysed along with the police records to try and determine a precise analysis of the crime in England and Wales. The BCS is considered to be a dependable opening of long term crime trends as it delves into detail about the victims experiences of the crimes along with the fear of crime in the particular areas. All this information is published in the annual report Crime in England and Wales.Police RecordsPolice records include all the reported crimes to the police which are in turn recorded in their database. These provide a valuable denotation of information for researchers, members of the press and even the police themselves. However these are still not a reliable source of the crime rates of a particular area as they only include crimes that police officers and victims actually do report. Not all reports are acquirable to the public for a variety of reasons such as to protect national security, to respect an ongoing investigation or even not to interfere with the quest or apprehension of criminal offenders.The Dark figure of crimeA large percentage of crime committed remains unreported. This trend seems prevalent in many areas and this could be due to multiple reasons. One such reason could be that the person is unaware that they are a victim, such as in baptistrys of fraud or even with drug dealers, where the buyer does not feel like the victim of a crime as he/she is also an active component of the crime. A victim may also feel embarrassed to report the crime which is often the case in sexual abuse and also in certain cases of physical abuse. The victim may decide to protect the offender which can be found in cases such as spousals abuse or it the victim knows the offender etc. It could also be that the victim is not in a position to protect themselves such is the case with victims of a young age, old age, mentally challenged, physically challenged etc. The trivialisation of certain crimes, such as littering, and the lack of faith in the police and the judicial system, may also result in a deficiency of reports to the police. A victim may feel the wait for justice through the policing system may take too long and even decide to take hold of matters themselves inflicting payback on the offender themselves. This in turn, may be an act of crime in itself. People involved in criminal behaviour tend to take up this kind of activity where they are unlikely to make a report when they are in turn are made victims. The character of a crime affects the likelihood of the crime being reported, if the crimes are of a serious nature or would entail police reports in order to make insurance claims.Police discretion may also influence the information represented on police records due to several factors such as the type of policing which may affect crime patterns and rates. P olice in different areas or with different methods may classify crime differently and also the fact that police stereotyping affects who the police search, arraign, arrest and investigate. During police campaigns that lead to arrests and convictions in regards to certain crimes, an increase in that particular crime would be recorded on the police records. However it is important to note that this may not be the case as the increase in the crime records may be a result of more arrests, not due to the increase of the crime itself. Several police forces do not report certain crimes as viewed as unimportant and are overlooked.Offender SurveysOffenders are also a component of crime researchers attempt to investigate. This is done through the use of Offender surveys where participants are asked if they have ever committed a crime. These are often criticised for being too subjective as they rely on the participants intelligence of what constitutes a crime. They seek to uncover the perpetr ators of crime, particularly for crime that is not reported in order to identify the offenders experiences of crime.Victim SurveysVictim surveys help provide a better and more accurate picture of crime representation alongside official police statistics. Through sampling, a selection of individuals are chosen and asked whether they have been victims of crime and most importantly if they reported these crimes to enforcement agencies.National Crime Victimization Survey United States

Aphra Behn Essay -- Literary Analysis, The Rover

Aphra Behn, who is the first female to achieve status of a professional playwright attempted to alter and ferment the literary cannon through her writing, which was a precarious occupation but allowed literature to evolve in a wider range. Behn was also one of the wittiest and entertaining as evidenced through her most renowned play, The Rover, which is a restoration, yet dark comedy set in 17th century Italy while under the compound reign of Spain. The large cast of characters becomes embroiled in scenes and consist a mix of themes of infidelity, seduction, misrepresentation, and elaborate swordplay, which create tension and confusion in addition to legion(predicate) comedic episodes. The play expresses its authors objections to the vulnerability of women in Restoration society. Perhaps ironically, it also appeals to the prurient interests of the audience by putting women in morally compromising situations. Based loosely on contemporary Thomas Killigrews 1564 unperformed play, Th omaso, or The Wanderer (1664), Behns play is less lewd and more profound. The Rover has been widely acclaimed by critics to be a feminist play, in particular a proto-feminist play which defined by The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms as a philosophical tradition that evaluate modern feminist concepts and the discussion of womens issues when the term feminist was nonexistent prior to the twentieth century. The writing is concerned with the unique experience of being a woman or alternatively writing designed to challenge existing preconceptions of gender. (Baldick, 2009 128) In The Rover, Behn places characters in morally corrupted situations and circumstances to force audiences to reconsider preconceptions, excite the new movement in feminist thi... ...uality keeps her from happiness. Through Angellica, Hellena, and Florinda, Behn reveals that the libertine female has no place in late Stuart society. The playwrights observation comes as a wistful warning at a time when women s eemed to push the limits of tradition. Actresses appearing on stage might feel they had found a calling of bodily expression, but from Behns experience as a woman with male colleagues, the freedom is a faade. Women on stage faced fetishization and loss of status. Behns commentary on womens position in the late Stuart period serves to point out the double standard of libertinism in court life and the earth sphere. (Staves, 2004 73) By exposing and mocking the Puritanical and Cavalier restraints imposed on women, she encourages viewers to reevaluate womens limited roles in the new age by heavy(a) her female characters a louder voice.

Physics of Beer Pong :: physics beer pong drinking game

Do you make believe what it takes to scram a beer pong champion? If so, you have come to the right place In this step-by-step tutorial, I will reveal the secrets of miserably defeating your opponent at the sport of beer pong. When played in tournament, beer pong takes a great amount more physical, psychological, and intellectual endurance than many other sports. It may even take many years of practice to become a champion.Dont assume that this biz is not a blood thirsty sport either. Alcohol is related to 100,000 deaths annually in America, normally occurring after a nights game of beer pong (Sage). I will rely heavily upon the laws of physics to explain in great dilate the appropriate method to overcome your opponents game, forcing them to streak across the neighborhood.The convenings of beer pong vary between locations and can cause great strife amongst rivaling teams. The number one rule is that the house that is hosting the tournament controls the rules. The house rules mus t also be announced at the beginning of the tournament. The official rules located on Wikipedia may give you a good foundation for the general rules. Alterations in the game usually form from city traditions. In Valdez, Alaska, a place well known for its intense game of beer pong, there is a common tradition of using quotes from Family Guy and BASEketball to distract the other player. Usually after a few beers these jokes miraculously become funny. some other beer pong tradition is to force the losing team to streak publicly. The website PongRules allows people to post their own rules around the world (PongRules). Remember, beer pong is governed by the drinkers for the drinkers.There are deuce types of table measurements players may use. The official rules state that the table must be eight feet long, at least two feet wide, and stand four feet tall. However, it is more commonly played on a hit pong table where the height reaches 30 inches (Organization). For the purposes of thi s project, I will be deriving my calculations using the dimensions of a ping pong table. The regulation ping pong ball consists of being 3-star, 40mm in diameter, and weighing 2.7 grams.Now, at each end of the table ten cups must be sorted in a triangular position similar to bowling pens but with the rims touching like soUsually three 12-ounce beers of your choice are divided equally among the 10 cups.